Ecological theory applied to golf courses
Friday, October 19, 2007
Ecological theory applied to golf courses
A report of fundamental interest on the ecology of golf courses by Alan C Gange, Della E Lindsay and J Mike Schofield*
Royal Holloway, University of London and *Oundle, Peterborough, UK
There are many questions about golf course ecology that
we do not yet know the answers to. For example, do courses
act as ‘sinks’ into which species are attracted from neighbouring
habitats, only to be killed by exposure to pesticides?
Do courses act as ‘sources’ for weedy or pest species
that can infest nearby areas of agricultural land? Or do
they act as areas where rare species can find refuges and
maintain their populations at a landscape scale?
In many cases, the answers are likely to depend on the
quality and quantity of the natural habitat areas present
on a course. By its very design, a golf course is fragmented
and the patches of habitat are either on the boundary of
the course or exist as linear fragments alongside the fairways
(Figure 5). We must know whether these patches are
of sufficient size, quality and proximity to neighbouring
patches for species to move between them and persist in
the local environment.
The theory of metapopulation dynamics can help us to understand these problems.
A metapopulation is a collection of populations.
Metapopulation dynamics state that a species is more
likely to persist in an environment if the patches of habitat
it can potentially occupy are sufficiently close together for
movement between patches to occur. A graphical representation
of this idea is shown in Figure 6. Here, shaded areas
represent occupied patches, while striped areas represent
currently unoccupied patches. Arrows indicate movement
between patches. For a species to persist in an environment,
it is important that there are enough patches of
sufficient size where it can live, but the movement of individuals
between patches is equally important. If, for any
reason, the population in one patch becomes extinct,
recolonisation can take place from neighbouring patches,
T h e e c o l o g y o f g o l f c o u r s e s
Figure 3. The distribution of golf course types in Britain. Most
courses are of the parkland type, with large areas of natural grassland and specimen trees.
Figure 4. The diversity of bees, beetles and birds at four golf courses, compared with surrounding areas of habitat. In all cases, the golf course supports a greater diversity of
species than the cultivated land from which it was created.
Figure 5. Many natural habitats exist as linear fragments, constituting the rough. These can be useful for conservation purposes, as well as trapping the unwary golfer!
66 Biologist (2003) 50 (2)
thus maintaining the overall population. If there was no
movement between patches (i.e., each population is
‘closed’) then extinction events in any one patch would be
permanent, and, over the course of time, the overall population
would be less likely to persist.
This idea is now being applied to the conservation of
heathland on golf courses, in a project at Royal Holloway,
funded by the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews.
This is the first study of its kind and one aim is to determine
whether the patches of heathland on any one golf
course act in a metapopulation context, as depicted in
Figure 6. However, an equally important target is to
determine the scale at which the processes of inter-patch
movement occur. For example, the areas in Figure 6 could
represent patches on one course, or they could represent
individual courses, separated by areas of farmland or
urbanisation. Furthermore, the patches could represent
golf courses and areas of natural heathland. In the latter
case, golf courses would be of immense benefit to the environment
because they might provide stepping stones for
movement between larger natural areas. The overall
population of any given species might thus stand a better
chance of long-term persistence in the event of a catastrophe
(e.g., a major fire) in any one of the natural areas.
This is because the individuals in the golf course could
recolonise the natural area when conditions became suitable
again.
In an initial study of heathland invertebrates on golf
courses, it was found that invertebrate density in patches
declined with increasing degree of isolation of a patch
(Gange, 1998). In that study, it appeared that the critical
inter-patch distance may be about 100 m. Above this
figure, invertebrate density in patches began to decline
rapidly. However, it is not just the absolute distance
between patches that is important, but the nature of the
barrier between them (Figure 7). In the current work, it
has been found that fairways (which are considerably less
than 100 m wide) represent serious barriers to grounddwelling
invertebrates. In a mark-release-recapture experiment
involving several thousand ground beetles, no beetle
was ever found to cross a fairway (Lindsay, unpublished).
Data such as these will be of importance to golf course
architects when designing new courses, and also to greenkeepers,
to help them in maximising the potential of the
habitats they currently possess.
It is very important to realise that, although we perceive a
golf course to occupy a defined area, bounded by a fence,
such a distinction is not made by mobile animals, such as
insects or birds. We need to realise that golf courses can be
important at a landscape scale, by providing connections or
corridors between one natural area of habitat and another.
Good golf courses should blend into the natural environment
and not be distinct from the surrounding area (Figure 8).
Some examples of good practice
While ecologists can help golf course managers to maximise
the conservation potential of specific habitats, there is
much that golf courses can do generally to enhance the
quality of the habitats they possess. One excellent example
is that of Lindrick GC in south Yorkshire (Newlands and
Roworth, 2000). This course supports a large area of
Magnesian Limestone grassland (a nationally scarce habitat)
and this, together with woodland, scrub and open water
habitats, is included in a 32 ha SSSI, covering 40% of the
total course area. Since 1980, the club has been involved in
a restoration programme of the grassland, encompassing a
rotational cutting scheme. Many nationally rare species,
including pale St John’s wort (Hypericum montanum),
autumn lady’s tresses (Spiranthes spiralis) and the glow
worm beetle (Lampyris noctiluca) occur there.
The club’s success in enhancing the SSSI was
recognised when they won the British and
International Golf Greenkeepers Association
(BIGGA) Golf Environment Competition (see
below) in 1998.
Another beautifully managed course is
Temple GC, in Berkshire. The course is situated
on undulating land, overlying chalk. This makes
for thin, calcareous (chalky) soils that provide
habitat for a rich downland flora. The local
Naturalist’s Trust has performed a number of
field surveys of the course, and the wildlife associated
with it is now remarkably well documented.
This is a very good example of how
clubs can engage their members in wildlife
surveys that provide important information on
the species inhabiting the course. The course
possesses good colonies of green-winged orchids
(Orchis morio) and several nationally rare
T h e e c o l o g y o f g o l f c o u r s e s
Figure 6. Metapopulation theory applied to golf courses. Patch A is
currently producing emigrants that can colonise the unoccupied
patches B and D. However, at the moment, patches C and E may be
either too isolated or too small to be part of the metapopulation.
However, once D is colonised, then the potential exists for E to become so too. The patches may represent habitat fragments on courses, or courses and areas of natural habitat at the landscape scale.
Figure 7. Barriers to wildlife movement between patches may be small such as paths or tracks, or large, such as a fairway or sand in a bunker!
Biologist (2003) 50 (2) 67
species of fungi. Temple also won the Golf Environment
Competition, in 1999.
Simpson (2000) provides a very good account of the golf
courses on the Sefton coast, Merseyside. These include
Royal Birkdale, where the Open took place a couple of
years ago. The golf courses here support a stunning array
of dune habitats and associated species. Much practical
conservation work has taken place to protect species such
as the sand lizard, natterjack toad and the green tiger
beetle (Cicindela campestris).
There are many other examples of positive conservation
planning on golf courses in the UK; the examples selected
here are designed to provide an idea of what can be achieved.
National and international initiatives
In 1994, the European Golf Association Ecology Unit was
set up as a joint initiative between the European Golf
Association, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St
Andrews and the PGA (Professional Golfers Association)
European tour. This represented an important step
forward and has resulted in some important publications
(see Further Reading).
The First European Birdwatching Open (1998) was a
one-day event, coordinated by the Ecology Unit across 116
courses in 18 countries in Europe. A total of 272 species of
birds were recorded in the 24 hr period of sampling on 17
May 1998, consisting of 4680 individual records. Overall,
40.3 bird species were recorded per course, on average,
confirming that golf courses can act as valuable habitats
for many species of birds.
One important ecological initiative produced by the
Ecology Unit was the Valderrama Declaration (1999). This
was issued in November 1999 and identified the advantages
of golfers and environmentalists working together for
‘the benefit of golf, the environment and people’. It was
signed by representatives of the United States Golf
Association (USGA), the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St
Andrews, the European Golf Association, the International
Olympic Committee, the World Wide Fund for Nature, the
United Nations Environment Programme and the
European Commission.
In the USA, the Audubon Society and the USGA have
created the Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary System for
golf courses. This programme is designed to enhance active
participation in conservation by golf courses, thereby
improving the quality of courses for wildlife. The USGA
also acts as a funding agency for a wide variety of ecological
projects on golf courses under their Wildlife Links
programme. In 2000, the total funding commitment to this
programme was over three quarters of a million dollars. No
comparable research programme exists in Europe, which is
a sad state of affairs, given that Europe supports 20% of all
the golf courses in the world.
There are now some initiatives that are designed to
acknowledge excellence in ecological practice by golf clubs.
On a national level, BIGGA have teamed up with industrial
sponsors to stage an annual Golf Environment
competition. In this, clubs are judged by a panel of professional
ecologists, against a number of ecological and
management criteria. The standards are extremely high
and the award is very prestigious. The competition has
been well received by golf clubs and is an excellent way of
demonstrating and rewarding best practice in environmental
management by clubs.
The Ecology Unit has now been superseded by the independent
Committed to Green Foundation. This encourages
voluntary environmental management programmes for
golf courses and other sports facilities and events. It is an
excellent way for golf clubs to be involved in practical
projects, thus realising their ‘green’ potential. It encourages
a holistic view of course management, encompassing
all aspects of maintenance.
A green future
There is no denying that golf courses do occupy large areas
of land that could, in theory, be natural habitat. However,
it is also a fact that, in our crowded island, if golf did not
exist, the land might equally be used for urbanisation or
intensive agriculture. Furthermore, the game will not
diminish in popularity, and new courses are opening all the
time. With the number of recognition schemes now in operation,
golf clubs have realised that they are custodians of
some very important areas of land. Much ecological work
needs to be done to fully understand how golf courses affect
biodiversity at a landscape scale. Golf would appear to
have a green future – not just from the turf point of view,
but also from the environmental aspect.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the golf clubs that have allowed us
access to their land over the past few years. Della Lindsay
is funded by the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St
Andrews.
T h e e c o l o g y o f g o l f c o u r s e s
Figure 8. Banff GC, Canada (arrowed). An excellent example of a course that blends in with its surroundings. The designers have not
destroyed the natural pine and spruce forest, but have made the course a part of it.
68 Biologist (2003) 50 (2)
References
Cohen S, Svrjcek A, Duborow T and Barnes N L (1999) Water
quality impacts on golf courses. Journal of Environmental
Quality, 28, 798–809.
Dair I and Schofield J M (1990) Nature conservation and the management
and design of golf courses in Great Britain. In: Science
and Golf. Cochran A J (Ed). London: E & F N Spon 330–335.
Fordham M (1988) Conservation management on golf courses.
Journal of the Sports Turf Research Institute, 64, 10–18.
Gange A C (1998) Dynamics of heathland conservation on a golf
course. In: Science and Golf III. Cochran A J and Farrally M R
(Eds). London: E & F N Spon 704–709.
Gange A C and Lindsay D E (2001) The birds and bees.
Greenkeeper International, August 2001, 27–29.
Jodice P G R and Humphrey S R (1992) Activity and diet of an
urban population of Big Cypress fox squirrels. Journal of
Wildlife Management, 56, 685–692.
Newlands C and Roworth P (2000) Managing the ‘roughs’. enact, 8,
16–17 (English Nature).
Simons P and Jarvie J (2001) Endangered orchid saved by golfers.
The Sunday Telegraph, July 15.
Simpson D (2000) Links for wildlife. enact, 8, 11–15 (English Nature).
Terman M R (1997) Natural links: naturalistic golf courses as
wildlife habitat. Landscape and Urban Planning, 38, 183–197.
Further reading
On course conservation: managing golf’s natural heritage.
Nature Conservancy Council (1989).
Your course: preparing a conservation management plan.
Nature Conservancy Council (1990).
An environmental strategy for golf in Europe. European
Golf Association Ecology Unit. Pisces Publications (1995).
An environmental management programme for golf
courses. European Golf Association Ecology Unit. Pisces
Publications (1996).
The Committed to Green handbook for golf courses. European
Golf Association Ecology Unit. Pisces Publications (1997).
Report on the First European Birdwatching Open.
European Golf Association Ecology Unit (1998).
Websites
www.committedtogreen.org
The homepage of the Committed to Green Foundation, giving access to
information about various environmental schemes available.
www.golfecology.com/new/declare.htm
Information on the Valderrama Declaration.
www.bigga.org.uk/news.html
Information on the Golf Environment Competition from the British and
International Golf Greenkeepers Association.
www.stri.co.uk/
Homepage of the Sports Turf Research Institute, where information on
golf course ecology can be found.
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